Perspectives
- What is an Ethical Perspective?
- Does Every Perspective Fit Neatly Within a Framework?
- Perspectives on Consequences
- Perspectives on Duty
- Perspectives on Virtue
What Is an Ethical Perspective?
Ethical perspectives articulate and defend specific values, principles, or more general ideals by which to live our lives. Hence they add content to the three frameworks relied on by this site, by helping you to think about:
- When and why specific ideals are appropriate (or inappropriate)
- What is at stake when if you choose to endorse one ideal rather than another.
Although you need not embrace any of the specific perspectives described below in order to deliberate ethically, you many find it useful to reflect on one or more of them as you formulate your judgments about who to be and what to do.
An ethical perspective can also be thought of as a specific way of looking through any of the frameworks on this site, helping you to notice which values or ideals can be fulfilled – or thwarted – by the actions you choose.]
Does Every Perspective Fit Neatly Within a Framework?
Many ethical perspectives fit most naturally within a single ethical framework, but others can only be fully articulated with the help of two or more.
Christian ethical thinking combines elements of both the duty framework and the virtue framework. You can find information about the former under the heading “Judeo Christianity,” and information about the latter under the heading “Christian Virtue,” below.
For convenience, we’ve provided a brief introduction to some of the most influential ethical perspectives within each framework. For more information about any of them, check out our resources page.
Pespectives on Consequences
The following ethical views fit within the general structure of the consequences framework.
Ethical Egoism
Hone Your Perception: Both Epicurus and Ayn Rand say we should look primarily at how an action will affect ourselves.
Clarify Your Judgment: Epicurus says the standard we ought to use to determine which consequences are best is prudence, while Ayn Rand says the standard is how well our personal values are expressed.
Cultivate Your Motivation: Epicurus says prudence is the only way we can have a peaceful soul, while Ayn Rand says the expression of personal values will allow us to acknowledge the highest level of the human spirit.
Classical Utilitarianism
Hone Your Perception: Both Bentham and Mill say we should look at the total amount of happiness that will be produced by our actions.
Clarify Your Judgment: Bentham and Mill agree that the standard we should use to evaluate consequences is to determine which action will maximize overall happiness, and they further agree that happiness can be understood solely in terms of pleasure and pain. However, Bentham thinks pleasure and pain can be measured in purely quantitative terms, while Mill thinks there are qualitative differences among types of pleasures and pains.
Cultivate Your Motivation: Bentham and Mill remind us that humans are naturally drawn to happiness, and that no person is more important than anyone else from the moral point of view. If everyone followed the utilitarian standard, then humanity as a whole would be much better off.
More on Classical Utilitarianism
Perspectives on Duty
The following ethical views fit within the general structure of the duty framework.
Ten Commandments
Hone Your Perception: A strictly duty-based perspective of the Ten Commandments says that you are supposed to follow certain rules which are laid out in the Bible. For many, these rules include not only the Ten Commandments, but also many other laws stated in the Bible and in other religious texts. (Note: It is fully possible to believe in the Ten Commandments but understand ethics to be virtue-based. So, while Jews and Christians believe in the Ten Commandments, only some of them see their beliefs as a duty-based ethics, while many others see their beliefs as a virtue-based ethics; in this regard, see the sections on ‘Jewish Virtue’ and ‘Christian Virtue’ on this site).
Clarify Your Judgment: This perspective tells you never to violate the duties set forth in certain religious texts. One possible outcome of this perspective is that you might consult a rabbi or priest for help if you were unable to resolve conflicts between duties identified in these texts.
Cultivate Your Motivation: One reason to live by the Ten Commandments is a desire to please god. This might come along with the belief that god will reward you if you follow the commandments, and punish you if you do not. However, pleasing god is not the only reason for following these commandments; you might follow these rules because you believe that they provide the foundation for a virtuous and stable society, and that without adherence to these rules, that kind of society might be lost.
Kantian Ethics
Hone Your Perception: Kant believes we have an absolute duty never to lie, cheat, murder or steal (these are “negative duties”); he also believes we are obligated to devote at least some of our time to improving ourselves and helping other people (these are “positive duties”).
Clarify Your Judgment: Kant believes we can identify the most dutiful action in any specific situation by applying either his Formula for Universal Law or his Formula for the End in Itself (both explained below); both formulas warn us that we are probably acting unethically whenever we are tempted to make a special exception for ourselves. Kant says there are never conflicts between negative duties, and if there is a conflict between positive duties, we can pick whichever one we like better. He resolves conflicts between positive and negative duties by saying we must be sure not to violate the negative duty first.
Cultivate Your Motivation: Kant claims that following these duties is the only way we can be fully autonomous human beings. Since autonomy literally means “self-legislating,” Kant’s perspective says that acting ethically is the best way to exercise control over our own lives.
Rawlsian Ethics
Hone Your Perception: John Rawls tells us to look for actions that obey his two principles of justice: (1) ensuring equal and maximal liberty, and (2) allowing inequality in the distribution of things only when this benefits the least well off members of our group. He also says we must follow these principles in order.
Clarify Your Judgment: Rawls says his two Principles of Justice (our duties) are justified because they are the ones we ourselves would choose if we put on a “Veil of Ignorance” that prevented us from knowing what kind of person we would be in society. Hence, whenever we think a conflict is produced by following his principles, he says we must put the Veil of Ignorance on again in order to determine the best action.
Cultivate Your Motivation: Rawls gives a number of reasons to follow these Duties. The first is that these Principles are completely rational, so if you don’t follow them you are being irrational. Rawls also says the only way you have become who you are is through society, so you ought to support the just society. Finally, Rawls says only these principles create a fair society, so if you value fairness you will follow these duties.
Rights Based Ethics
Hone Your Perception: John Locke says our duties are to respect every person’s rights to life, liberty, and property. He identifies these duties by analyzing the State of Nature., in which there was no government to enforce any moral rules.
Clarify Your Judgment: Locke says we must never violate anyone rights. When it is impossible to avoid doing so (when there is a conflict between duties), he says we must leave the arbitration of the conflict up to the rational government which preserves these rights.
Cultivate Your Motivation: The first reason Locke gives for following these duties is because, as people who benefit from the social contract, we have a duty to uphold our side of the bargain. Locke also says it is rational to support this set of duties because it brings us closer to a rational state of nature.
Perspectives on Virtue
The following ethical views fit within the general structure of the virtue framework.
Jewish Ethics
Hone Your Perception: Jewish virtues include, but are not limited to: feeling the call to contribute to 'tikkun olam' (a Hebrew phrase which means 'repairing the world,' in the sense of making the world a better place), fairness, honesty, respect, loving your neighbor, being charitable, desiring to learn, questioning what you don’t understand, striving after social justice, and feeling the call to ethically respond to others.
Clarify Your Judgment: These virtues are important because they help you become the sort of person who lives his or her life in the service of others. In general, this perspective says a trait is a virtue if it helps you improve the world, your community, and yourself.
Cultivate Your Motivation: Jewish virtues are seen as important and worth having because they help make you the kind of person who will be able to improve not only yourself and your community, but the whole world.
Ancient Greek Ethics
Hone Your Perception: The classical Greek virtues are Temperance (moderation), Courage, Wisdom, and Justice, though Aristotle adds many more traits to this list.
Clarify Your Judgment: For Plato, a trait is a virtue if it helps us to live in accordance with reason, and to cultivate a more harmonious soul. Aristotle believed that if we want to be virtuous in any activity, we must be careful to avoid doing either too much or too little.
Cultivate Your Motivation: This perspective says we must cultivate the virtues in order to lead a pleasant and fulfilling life (though Aristotle thought we needed some good fortune as well). The Greeks also believed that society will only be just and good if its citizens are virtuous.
Buddhism
Hone Your Perception: The virtues we ought to cultivate are right views, right intentions, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration (this is known as the Eightfold Path)
Clarify Your Judgment: The Buddha justifies these virtues through the Four Noble Truths: (1) life is suffering, (2) the cause for suffering is desire, (3) we can end suffering through non-attachment, and (4) nonattachment comes from following the Middle Way. If we understand these truths we will know how to be virtuous.
Cultivate Your Motivation: Buddha says that cultivating these virtues is the only way we can end our natural human suffering.
Christian Virtue
Hone Your Perception: the Seven Heavenly Virtues are Faith, Hope, Charity, Courage, Justice, Temperance, and Prudence. Jesus himself also taught and exemplified Humbleness, Generosity, Forgiveness, Purity, and Love.
Clarify Your Judgment: Jesus says these are virtues because they bring harmony to both the soul and society. If we are wondering how to be more virtuous, it is useful to follow the example of Jesus himself.
Cultivate Your Motivation: We ought to follow these virtues, both because they are good in themselves, and also because they will bring about the perfect society if each person follows them. The historical figure of Jesus has also served as an inspiration to many people.
Confucianism
Hone Your Perception: Confucius says the virtues we ought to look for are Courtesy, Magnanimity, Good Faith, Diligence, Kindness, Piety, and ultimately Goodness.
Clarify Your Judgment: Confucius justifies these virtues because they uphold the natural order of Chinese society. If we are confused about which traits are virtues, he says we ought to strive for traits that are appropriate to our particular social role.
Cultivate Your Motivation: Confucius reminds us that these virtues contribute to a more harmonious or natural society, which embodies Goodness and hence is beneficial for us to live in.
Feminist Care Ethics
Hone Your Perception: The only virtue for Noddings is “Ethical Care” (explained below), though lots of other traits (like sympathy and compassion) are important as aspects of ethical care.
Clarify Your Judgment: Noddings believes that the Natural Care that occurs between mother and child is a model of ethical behavior. Hence she argues that Ethical Care is a virtue because it extends and improves our capacity for natural caring.
Cultivate Your Motivation: We ought to cultivate this virtue because it values human interdependence and relationships (which helps all people become virtuous), instead of human independence (which only helps the individual).
Taoism
Hone Your Perception: While there are no specific virtues found in Taoism, the farmer serves as the ideal role model for a Taoist (explained more below).
Clarify Your Judgment: Lao Tzu justifies these virtues by saying they bring man back to nature and allows the Tao (literally “the Way”) to unfold in the manner that it is meant to unfold. More generally, he suggests that we should avoid caring too much about social status.
Cultivate Your Motivation: We ought to cultivate these virtues, according to Lao Tzu, because it will bring humans back to The Way, which will make everyone as perfect as they are able by allowing them to fulfill their nature.