Confucianism

As one of the two major philosophical schools in China (the other being Taoism), Confucianism has had a huge influence on Chinese culture and philosophy. Even though the philosophy is over 2500 years old, it still remains a major influence on Chinese politics and society. While Confucius did write about the duties of each person (based on his place in society), these duties only came about as a result of the specific virtues that every person should have. Since its emphasis is on the character of the individual, Confucianism falls into the virtue based framework.

Two Sets of Virtues

Confucius defends two sets of virtues, one set that all people ought to follow, and one set for each person as dictated by his or her relationship to the rest of society. The first set starts with one main virtue, the virtue of the Good: “The Master said, A man who is not Good, what can he have to do with ritual? A man who is not Good, what can he have to do with music?” (Confucius 94).

Five additional principles (or character traits) are then identified as being crucial to support the Good: “The Master said, courtesy, breadth, good faith, diligence, and clemency(Confucius 210). Each of these virtues has a specific role within society:

  • Courtesy keeps the individual from being embarrassed by others
  • Magnanimity (breadth) allows other people to enjoy each other’s company
  • Good faith enables people to trust each other
  • Diligence enables people to achieve their goals
  • Kindness (clemency) enables people to help one another.

Confucius is also careful to articulate a system of ethics that preserved Chinese society. For Confucius, society is a reflection on nature, and nature has dictated five different types of relationships that the virtuous person will preserve:

  • Ruler and subject
  • Father and son
  • Elder and younger brother
  • Husband and wife
  • Friend and friend.

Within each of these duties there is a “dominate” and a “subordinate” role. To have the virtue of piety means that you fulfill your roles within each of these relationships. If you are the dominant one, you are to act like the dominant one, if you are the subordinate one, you are to act as a subordinate. Demonstrating the appropriate form of piety is the second type of Confucian virtue.

Upholding Society

Confucius believes that all of these traits are virtues because they uphold society, and the Good more generally. “Yen Hui asked about Goodness. The Master said, “He who can submit himself to ritual is Good… to look at nothing in defiance of ritual, to listen to nothing in defiance of ritual…. never to stir hand or foot in defiance of ritual” (Confucius 162).

For Confucius, Chinese society and government are created by nature, and should be preserved because they are natural. The Confucian virtues are thus meant to preserve the nature of human beings and society. When one gives into his personal desires (which only care about the self), he shows a lack of Goodness, because Goodness encompasses all people. Since society also naturally encompasses all people, to have the virtue of Goodness means to preserve the Chinese government and society through the relationships established by nature.

Reasons to Cultivate Virtue

Confucius gives three reasons why we ought to cultivate these virtues in ourselves. The first reason is that only the individual can cultivate his virtue, no one else can help him or do it for him: “That Master said, When it comes to Goodness one need not avoid competing with one’s teacher” (Confucius 200). It is not society (our teacher) that gives us these virtues, rather, we create a humane society by constantly striving to make ourselves more virtuous. The best society is created when each individual cultivates his/her virtue; the virtuous people then naturally come together and form the natural society.

The second reason Confucius gives for cultivating these virtues is that they create harmony in society and in our relationships to all people: “The Master said, He who does not understand the will of Heaven cannot be regarded as a gentleman. He who does not know the rites cannot take his stand” (Confucius 233). The “will of Heaven” is the same as the “rules of propriety” which follow from Confucian virtue, so in cultivating these virtues, we establish harmony in society.

Confucius’ third justification for these virtues is closely linked with the second, namely that they align the individual and society with nature: “The Master said, Man’s very life is honesty, in that without it he will be lucky indeed if he escapes with his life” (Confucius 119). When we cultivate the Confucian virtues, we are fulfilling our destiny for what we were born to do. In doing so, we create harmony in nature, society, and ourselves.

Confucius. The Analects. Trans. Arthur Waley. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1939.