Ethical Egoism
Throughout the history of moral philosophy, there have been many defenders of “ethical egoism,” a perspective which states that one ought to do whatever actions will promote one’s personal interests. Personal interest is not simply what one wants though. Rather, what is in our interest is what creates the most benefit in both the short and long term for the individual. For example, if I take a 10th shot of vodka, it may create some initial pleasure, but this would not be in my self interest if I end up being sick the next day.
This view should not be confused with “Psychological Egoism,” which says that all human actions are naturally and inevitably selfish. Rather, “Ethical Egoism” says that even if we have the ability to act for the sake of other people’s interests, we ought to choose only those actions that promote our self-interest. This perspective falls within the Consequences framework, because the correct action is determined based on its outcomes (in this case, how well it serves one’s own interest), rather than on whether it adheres to duties or is done by a person whose character is good.
Two of the most famous philosophers of this movement are the Hellenistic thinker Epicurus, and the contemporary philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand. For both Epicurus and Rand, the standard we should use to evaluate the consequences of our actions is the promotion of self interest.
Epicurus’ Ethic
Epicurus interprets the standard of self interest in terms of the amount of pleasure that the action creates for oneself. However, Epicurus does not think we should just follow our simple desires. Epicurus defines pleasure as the absence of pain, not just a feeling of elation, and he thinks that being in a neutral state counts as pleasurable in the most basic sense: “The limit of quantity in pleasures is the removal of all that is painful. Wherever pleasure is present, as long as it is there, there is neither pain of body nor of mind, nor of both at once” (Epicurus 278).
The kinds of pleasure that Epicurus says we ought to aim for are those that are in accord with the virtues that allow us to seek correct pleasure: “It is not possible to live pleasantly without living prudently and honorably, and justly, [nor again to live a life of prudence, honor, and justice] without living pleasantly” (Epicurus 278). We should aim for a state in which our soul is content and our body avoids pain.
Characteristics of Prudence
The three characteristics of prudence for Epicurus are self-sufficiency, being invulnerable to chance, and completeness. This prudent state is self-sufficient because it focuses only on fulfilling one’s most basic needs, none of which require input from other people; it is invulnerable to chance because these needs are relatively easy to fulfill; and it is complete because our most basic needs can almost always be satisfied.
If we go for unneeded pleasures, such as eating rare foods or experiencing sexual pleasure, then we are forced to rely on other people for our pleasure, and our desires will never be fully satiated (because they lead to extreme emotions, which are impossible to overcome). These activities may be initially pleasurable, but they will only cause more pain later on. Hence, we ought to only to seek to fulfill the desires that can be satiated. These are the simple, necessary pleasures such as eating basic foods, relaxing, conversing with friends, and any other activities that will bring about a calmness of the soul. As such, the best course of action is the one which will create the most peace in our soul.
Our ultimate motivation to follow this standard, according to Epicurus, is that we are naturally drawn to pleasure. However, he reminds us that naturally we only really want pleasure that is fulfilling and can be satiated. It is society that tempts us to want pleasures that are often hard to satisfy, and part of becoming ethical is learning to avoid this social temptation. Learning to be prudent in our desires is the only way we can live a truly pleasurable life; one in which our soul is at peace.
Ayn Rand’s Ethic
Ayn Rand interprets the egoistic standard in terms of how well our personal values are fulfilled, and whether our hierarchy of values is satisfied. For Rand, our highest value is always our life, so any action we take must be one that values our personal life: “The rational principle of conduct is … act in accordance with the hierarchy of your values, and never sacrifice a greater value for a lesser one” (Rand 50).
Rand claims that seeking personal satisfaction in any other way (such as through altruism) will not fulfill one’s true interests. One’s highest value is one’s own life, so if one sacrifices one’s life; one is displacing the highest value for another value, which is also acting against reason (and acting immorally).
The idea that altruism is always immoral is one of her more controversial stances; Rand goes so far as to say that even if you help someone without any danger to yourself you are still sacrificing your own self, and hence still displacing the highest value. Reason dictates that we live for the highest value, so only when we serve that value are we able to achieve personal pleasure.
Personal Life as Highest Value
Rand thinks we ought to care about the egoistic standard because it is the only one that acknowledges that personal life is our highest value. This value (our life) is the source of our needs, and hence only when we have the ability to fulfill our needs can we fulfill the value of our life. A need, for Rand, is not just something that we require in order to survive, but anything that is necessary for us to express our ultimate value as human beings, no matter how we decide to express that value.
Rand argues that we ought to have all the freedom possible when trying to fulfill the needs of our life. This statement too is very controversial because it justifies a tyrant’s actions if the tyrant feels that he can only be who he is through oppressing others. Still, Rand insists that the egoistic standard is the only one that allows us to be the way we naturally are as human beings.
Epicurus. “Principle Doctrines.” Classics of Political and Moral Philosophy. Ed. Steven M. Cahn. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 278-280.
Rand, Ayn. The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York: New American Library, 1964.